Early Human Ontogeny and the Implications for Schooling

In my interview with Craig Barton, I spent some time discussing human psychological ontogeny and the highly predictable* ontogenetic phases that all humans pass through.

After listening to the interview, several people have asked me to explain ontogeny further, which is what I will attempt to do here in a very short blog.

If you are interested in knowing more about this subject, the best source I know of is Michael Tomasello’s extraordinary book, Becoming Human, which I wholeheartedly recommend.

Human Ontogenetic Phases

1. Newborns and Face Recognition: From birth, infants display an innate preference for faces, an ability that is universally observed across cultures. It is part of an evolutionary design to help infants recognise caregivers and respond to social cues, essential for survival. This biologically primary instinct is essential for social bonding, highlighting an early readiness for social engagement.
2. Six-Month Developmental Markers: At around six months, infants universally develop basic motor skills, object recognition, and early communication. These abilities, rooted in biological maturation, are primarily influenced by innate instincts rather than cultural factors, making them consistent across different environments.
3. The Nine-Month Revolution: Around nine months, infants experience a major developmental shift marked by the emergence of joint attention and shared intentionality. This phase, termed the “nine-month revolution” by Tomasello, lays the groundwork for more complex social interactions, such as language learning and understanding others’ perspectives. While this stage is universal, cultural variations can influence how these skills are nurtured.
4. Ontogenetic Stages Beyond Infancy:
   • Joint Attention and Communication (nine to twelve months): Infants begin to share attention with others, recognising that people have their own intentions. This sets the stage for social learning and language development.
   • Collaborative Activities (around two years): Children start engaging in activities that require coordination with others, forming the basis for cooperative behaviours and shared understanding.
   • Norm-Based Social Cognition (three to five years): At this stage, children grasp social norms and rules, developing a sense of fairness and justice essential for group integration.
   • Understanding Pedagogy (around age five): By the age of five, children begin to understand the concept of pedagogy. They recognise that when adults interact with them in specific ways, such as through direct teaching or instruction, the adult is intentionally trying to impart knowledge or skills. This recognition of pedagogical intent allows children to learn more effectively because they understand that the information being conveyed is meant for their learning and future application. This stage is crucial as it marks the shift from merely absorbing information from their environment to actively engaging in learning processes designed by others, a key aspect of cultural transmission and education.
   • Reflective and Moral Identity (six to seven years and beyond): Children start reflecting more deeply on their and others’ actions, internalising cultural values, and forming a stable moral identity.

Implications for schools and teachers (5 – 7 years old)

As children become nascent persons, they are no longer just passive recipients of cultural knowledge. By recognising teaching as a deliberate act of knowledge transfer, children begin to engage more purposefully with learning, which is essential for the transmission of cultural knowledge and skills across generations.

With children becoming more aware of social norms, reflective thinking, and understanding pedagogy around ages six to seven, there are several implications for schools and teachers:

1. Nascent Persons are not the Same as Full Persons: It is critical in the debate around education to recognise that children at this age are nascent persons and that the educational and schooling needs of nascent persons is distinct from that of full persons. This is why many nations have a notable change in the format of education after age 7 – often seen as the start of formal education.
2. Individual Learning Needs: Teachers need to recognise that children at this age are developing a sense of identity and moral understanding. They are beginning to think about their actions in terms of fairness and justice. This awareness requires educators to cater to individual learning needs and encourage self-reflection. Differentiated instruction, where teaching is adapted to meet different students’ needs, becomes particularly important. Nations that choose to provide formal education settings for children at this age should be mindful of this and ensure that teachers are required to work with only small groups, making it possible for professional to both spot and react to pupils differing needs as they pass through ontogenetic phases at slightly different times.
3. Promoting Social and Emotional Learning: As children develop social cognition and start to internalise social norms, education settings should prioritise social and emotional learning. Programs that teach empathy, cooperation, conflict resolution, and emotional regulation can help pupils navigate social dynamics and foster a supportive classroom environment. Such programs are crucial in helping children understand and respect diverse perspectives, which is vital for their moral and social development. Without acquiring these dispositions during this phase of their life, children are left incapacitated and adrift from future school learning, where they are not able to align with the expectations of a standard classroom.
4. Encouraging Critical Thinking and Autonomy: With the emergence of reflective and moral identity, children begin to think more critically about their experiences and the world around them. Schools should encourage this development by promoting critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Allowing children to question, discuss, and reflect on different scenarios helps them develop their reasoning abilities and moral judgment.
5. Understanding the Role of Pedagogy: Since children around age five start to understand that adults are intentionally teaching them, educators should be more explicit about their instructional goals and methods. Clear explanations of why certain activities are done and what the expected outcomes are can help pupils engage more deeply and take ownership of their learning. This transparency in teaching can enhance motivation and make learning more meaningful.
6. Creating a Moral and Ethical Classroom Culture: With children’s growing sense of moral identity, it is essential for teachers to establish a classroom culture that values respect, honesty, and cooperation. Role-playing activities, discussions about ethical dilemmas, and incorporating stories with moral lessons can help pupils practice these values and understand their importance in a community setting.
7. Fostering a Collaborative Learning Environment: As children become capable of engaging in more sophisticated collaborative activities, schools should encourage cooperative learning strategies. These activities not only build social skills but also teach children the importance of working towards common goals, which is fundamental for later social and academic success.
8. Support for Self-Regulation and Executive Functioning: At this stage, children are developing their ability to regulate their emotions and behaviour, which is crucial for learning. Teachers can support this by structuring activities that help build executive functions, such as memory games, planning tasks, and activities that require focused attention and self-control.

Schools and teachers play a crucial role in guiding children’s cognitive, social, and moral development. By providing a supportive environment that encourages reflection, collaboration, and ethical behaviour in children aged 5 – 7, educators can help shape well-rounded individuals who are prepared to engage thoughtfully and responsibly with the world around them and have the foundations required for future classroom learning.

* Note: Almost all research carried out in the field of human psychological ontogeny has been in WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) cultures. Here, the phases are highly predictable, where the social and cognitive developmental pathways tend to follow this pattern more uniformly due to similar social and educational practices. But we are limited in applying these findings universally. There could be different developmental trajectories in non-WEIRD cultures due to varying social, environmental, and cultural influences. So, the predictability of these stages might not hold true everywhere, and more research is needed to understand how these stages might differ across diverse cultural settings.